The branch of medicine that focuses on the genitourinary system, its disorders, symptoms, and treatments is called urology. But aside from the urinary tracts of males and females, urology also deals with the medical aspects of the male reproductive system. Medical professionals that are specializing in the field of urology are known as urologists and they are allowed by law to perform examinations, surgeries, and oversee treatments on patients diagnosed with urological diseases.

Urology, due to the other functions of the organs of the genitourinary system and its close relation to the reproductive system, sometimes partly cover with or even go beyond the medical branches of oncology (branch of medicine that deals with cancer), gynecology (health of the female reproductive system), andrology (health of the male reproductive system), nephrology (functions and diseases of the kidney, a branch of internal medicine), and proctology (anus).

Some sub-branches of urology include; neurourology, pediatric urology, and urologic oncology. Neurourology primarily deals with the nervous system and its control on the genitourinary system. Urological disorders such as abnormal incontinence, overactive bladder, and urinary retention are sometimes related to neurological diseases like Parkinson ’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and spinal cord injury. Pediatric urology is focused on urological disorders that occur in children. Urologic oncology is concerned with the cancers that involve organs in the genitourinary system, such as prostate cancer, penile cancer, and bladder cancer. Other sub-branches are stone diseases, sexual dysfunction, and male infertility.

The medical branch that concerns with the nervous system, its disorders and diseases, their symptoms and treatments is called neurology. It particularly deals with the diseases involving the involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, their causes and the other body parts that are affected by such disorders.

Medical professionals that are trained in the field of neurology are called neurologists. They are extensively trained to handle, diagnose, and treat neurological disorders. Despite the broad scope of their specialization, neurologists do not perform surgeries when required. In cases where surgery is an immediate necessity, neurologists refer their patients to neurosurgeons and interventional neurodiologists.

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Neurology, in most cases, tag with other relate medical branches such as clinical neurophysiology (in the United States, this field is included within the scope of psychiatry), psychoneuroimmunology (concerned with interactions between the nervous systems and the immune system of the human body), and neuropsychiatry (mental disorders). The degree of the overlapping of these fields varies from country to country, depending on the medical prerequisites set by each government. It has been argued that there is no definitive distinction between neurology and psychiatry. Neurological disorders most of the time display psychiatric characteristics and attributes, such as Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, and Parkinson’s disease.

Dermatology is a branch of medicine dealing with diverse diseases of the skin and its attachments including nails, hair and sweat glands; the mucous membrane and a number of STDs (sexually transmitted diseases).

These disorders include warts, acne, skin cancers, multiple inflammatory dermatoses, occupational dermatoses, autoimmune diseases and contact dermatitis. The treatment varies from surgical procedures (sclerotherapy, excisions, hair transplants, liposuction, tissue augmentation therapies, and laser surgery), therapy for photoaging skin and prevention of diseases and cancers of the skin.

A dermatologist is a medical doctor who practices dermatology. There are several aspects to the specialty.

Dermasurgery covers skin cancer surgery, photodynamic therapy, laser surgery, liposuction, sclerotherapy, and cosmetic procedures using botulinum toxin or botox. Dermatopathology is a sub-specialty of anatomical pathology concerning skin diseases. Immunodermatology is the study of the skin as an agent of immunity in health and disease. A number of areas have special focus, such as inflammatory diseases (atopic eczema and allergic contact dermatitis), photo-immunology (effects of UV on skin defense), the immunology of microbial skin diseases (leprosy and retrovirus infections) and autoimmune skin diseases such as psoriasis and vitiligo.

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The study of the effects of hazardous amounts of chemicals on living organisms is called toxicology. Included in this branch of medicine are the symptoms, treatments, and detection of dangerous levels of chemicals present, but primarily, toxicology is focused on human poisoning. In simple terms, toxicology is the science of poisons and toxins.

Theophrastus Phillipus Auroleus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493 – 1541), or more commonly known as Paracelsus and considered by many as The Father of Modern Toxicology, declared that living beings are constantly open to chemicals. Poisoning occurs when a living being is exposed to chemicals that have reached unsafe dosages. Hence the maxim, “the dose makes the poison”. Paracelsus was also the first person who elaborated on the dose-response relationship of toxic substances.
As a science, toxicology is an interaction of chemistry and biology, since the field deals with chemicals and its effects on a living organism. Today, there are several sub-branches of modern toxicology; each has its own specific area of concentration. Several sub-branches include:

* Clinical Toxicology
* Forensic Toxicology
* Industrial Toxicology
* Environmental Toxicology
* Biochemical Toxicology
* Molecular Toxicology
* Product Development Toxicology
* Regulatory Toxicology

Technological advances in various fields have allowed the creation of synthetic toxins, which, according to Rachel Carson, are more difficult to deal with than natural toxins because of their unique structures and compositions.
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Pulmonology is the study and science of the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the lungs. It is considered as a subspecialty of internal medicine as it deals with the study and treatment of the diseases of the lungs and respiratory tract.

Pulmonology is also known in other countries as Pneumology, Respiratory medicine, Chest medicine and Pulmonary medicine. This branch of medicine is also closely related to intensive care medicine as it deals with patients that require mechanical ventilation.

Chest medicine is not a specialty by itself but it is a term used to describe the treatment of chest ailments and it also includes the fields of pulmonology, intensive care medicine and thoracic surgery.

The primary focus of the Pulmonology is the treatment of lung diseases including the handling and prevention of tuberculosis. Medical experts specializing in Pulmonology are called pulmonologists.
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Pulmonologists are physicians that have received a medical degree MD or had completed residency training in internal medicine for three years and followed it by at least another two years of subspecialty fellowship training in pulmonology.

With the various clinical problems in relation to lungs and respiratory tracts, pulmonologists are expected to possess medical knowledge of internal medicine and other specialties that deal with lung conditions. The common diseases under are asthma, pneumonia, tuberculosis, cystic fibrosis and lung cancer.

Pediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents.

Childhood is the period of maximum growth, progress and maturation of the many organ systems in the body. Years of training and experience in pediatrics go into identifying the difference between normal and abnormal variants.

The smaller body of an infant is considerably different physiologically from that of an adult. Aside from this obvious disparity, other issues such as genetic variance, congenital defects, oncology, and immunology are unique to the domain of pediatrics. Diseases like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, infectious diseases and immunizations, congenital heart defects, and leukemia in children are now more frequently treated by pediatricians.

In the U.S., pediatricians are deemed to be primary care doctors, alongside those who are into internal medicine, family practice, and obstetrics. The rest of the world views them as specialists.
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The branch of medicine that deals with diagnoses and treatments of ear, nose, throat, and head and neck disorders is called Otolaryngology. Doctors who specialize in this branch are called Otorhinolaryngologists (ORL) or otolaryngologists. However, they are more commonly known as Eye, Nose, and Throat (ENT) doctors.

Otolaryngology focuses on diseases found in the larynx, sinuses, upper pharynx, and oral cavity. ENT doctors are also trained to treat and manage disorders affecting a person’s neck and face structures, as well as possible speech impairments.

There are two special areas of Otolaryngology. The first area involves the study, treatment, and management of ear and temporal bone diseases. This is called Otology/Neurology. It also involves diagnosis and treatment of hearing and balance disorders.

The second area of Otolaryngology is focused on ear, nose, and throat disorders that occur in children. Pediatric Otolaryngology focuses on children’s problems with speech, voice, language, and hearing.

Known as the oldest medical specialty in the United States, the practice of Otolaryngology dates back to the 19th century when doctors developed several techniques and tools aimed at studying the structures of the head and neck.

An otolaryngologist who deals with nose disorders is called a rhinologist, while an otologist is an ear specialist. Otolaryngologists who concentrate on problems of the throat are called laryngologists.

The practice of Otolaryngology also involves cosmetic plastic and reconstructive surgery.
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Ophthalmology is a branch of medicine that deals with the disorders, diseases, and the corrective measures involving the eyes and parts related to the process of seeing, including the optic nerves, the brain, the eyelids, and the lacrimal system. Ophthalmology is a different practice from optometry, though there are several areas where both branches overlap. While practitioners from both fields can perform and interpret visual examinations and prescribe medications and optical aids such as eyeglasses, the ophthalmologist is the only person allowed by law to perform surgical procedures on a patient’s eye/s if such necessity is required. On the other hand, an optometrist can only refer a patient to an ophthalmologist if a surgery involving the eyes is needed.

The practice of ophthalmology dates back to the age of the Babylonian Empire, as evidenced by the Code of Hammurabi, in which texts related to ophthalmology are found detailing the procedures, the rates, and the penalties for medical malpractice. However, given the fact the eye disorders were already present during periods stated in the Holy Bible, it is assumed that the art of ophthalmology has been observed much earlier than the time of the Babylonians, despite the lack of evidences to prove such assumption.

Endocrinology is an area of medicine dealing with disorders of the endocrine system and its specific secretions called hormones. Hormones are molecules that function as signals from one type of cells to another. Most hormones reach their targets through the blood. While every organ system secretes and reacts to hormones (including the lungs, brain, intestine, hypothalamus, heart, liver, skin, bone, placenta, stomach, and the kidney), the clinical forte of endocrinology concentrates primarily on the endocrine organs, meaning those whose chief function is hormone secretion. The major endocrine glands are Adrenals, Hypothalamus, Ovaries, Pancreas, Parathyroid, Pineal, Pituitary, Testes, and Thyroid

An endocrinologist is a doctor whose focus is treating diseases of the endocrine system. Some of these endocrinological diseases include Addison’s disease, Cushing’s syndrome, Hypoglycemia, Diabetes mellitus, Osteoporosis, Rickets, Hyperparathyroidism, Hermaphroditism, Amenorrhea, Hyperthyroidism, Multiple endocrine neoplasia, Thyroid cancer, Polycystic ovary syndrome, Gender identity disorder, Delayed puberty, Ovarian failure, Testicular failure, and Turner syndrome.
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Pneumonia is a disease of the lungs and respiratory system in which the alveoli (microscopic air-filled sacs of the lung accountable for taking in oxygen from the environment) become swollen and inundated with fluid.

Pneumonia can result from a range of causes, including infection with viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites. Pneumonia may also crop up from chemical or physical injury to the lungs, or indirectly due to a different medical disease, such as alcohol abuse or lung cancer.

Characteristic symptoms related to pneumonia include cough, fever, chest pain, and problem with breathing. Tools in diagnosing pneumonia include x-rays and examination of the sputum. Treatment relies upon the cause of pneumonia. Bacterial pneumonia, for example is treated with antibiotics.

Pneumonia is a common sickness, arises in all age groups, and is a top cause of death among the elderly and people who are persistently ill. Vaccines to put off specific types of pneumonia are accessible. The diagnosis for an individual rests on the kind of pneumonia, the proper treatment, any complications, and the person’s health.

CAUSES
Pneumonia is caused by a lot of factors. Though, bacteria are the most common causes of pneumonia.

The most common bacterium that sets off pneumonia is Streptococcus pneumonia–20% to 60% community-acquired pneumonias in adults and 13% to 38% in children.

Staphylococcus aureus explains for 10% to 15% of hospital-acquired pneumonias. It is most frequently linked with viral influenza and patients with a dwindling immune system. Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus) can also cause pneumonia.

Atypical pneumonias, such as Walking Pneumonia, are caused by bacterial organisms and come with mild symptoms such as a dry cough. They usually do not call for hospital care.

Viral Causes of Pneumonia:

* Influenza
* Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (SARS)
* Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)
* Adenoviruses
* Human Parainfluenza Virus (HPV)
* Herpesviruses

DIAGNOSIS & SYMPTOMS
Symptoms are determined by the type of pneumonia and the individual.

With bacterial pneumonia, the person may suffer:

* shaking
* chattering teeth
* chills
* cough that makes rust-colored or greenish mucus
* acute chest pain
* sweating
* very high fever
* rapid pulse rate
* rapid breathing

With viral pneumonia, the person may suffer:

* fever
* muscle pain and weakness
* dry cough
* headache

These flu-like symptoms could be followed within one or two days by:

* mounting breathlessness
* bluish color to the lips
* higher fever
* dry cough becoming worse and producing a small amount of mucus

In spite of of the kind of pneumonia, the person may also go through the following symptoms:

* a loss of appetite
* clammy skin
* feeling ill
* nasal flaring
* mental confusion
* fatigue
* joint and muscle stiffness
* abdominal pain
* anxiety, tension and stress

TEST & TREATMENT
Treatment rests on the seriousness of symptoms and the kind of organism causing the infection.

I. For bacterial pneumonia (caused by the streptococcus pneumonia bacteria):

* penicillin
* erythromycin.
* ampicillin-clavulanate (Augmentin)

For bacterial pneumonia (caused by the hemophilus influenza bacteria):

* cefuroxime (Ceftin)
* ofloxacin (Floxin)
* ampicillin-clavulanate (Augmentin)
* trimethoprim-sulfanethoxazole (Bactrim and Septra)

Bacterial pneumonia (caused by legionella pneumophilia and staphylococcus aureus bacteria) are cured with antibiotics, such as erythromycin.

II. Viral pneumonia does not react to antibiotic treatment. This type of pneumonia typically settles over time. If the lungs become contaminated with a secondary bacterial infection, the physician will give a suitable antibiotic to eradicate the bacterial infection.

III. Mycoplasma pneumonia is frequently treated with antibiotics, such as clarithromycin (Biaxin), erythromycin, tetracycline or azithromycin (Zithromax).

COMPLICATIONS

Bacteria in the bloodstream
Pneumonia can turn fatal when inflammation from the disease fills up the air sacs in the lungs and impedes with the capacity to breathe. In several cases the infection may attack the bloodstream (bacteremia). It can then extend rapidly to other organs.

Lung abscess
A cavity holding pus (abscess) that develops within the area distressed by pneumonia is one more possible complication. Abscesses frequently are treated with antibiotics, but in unusual cases they may need to be eliminated surgically.

Fluid buildup and infection around the lungs
At times fluid builds up between the thin, clear membrane (pleura) enveloping the lungs and the membrane that coats the inner surface of the chest wall—a state known as pleural effusion.

PREVENTION

* Get a pneumonococcal vaccine. Those who stand to gain most from vaccination are people over the age 65; anyone with persistent health problems (heart disease, diabetes, kidney disease, etc.); anyone who has had their spleen taken out; anyone staying in a nursing home or chronic care facility; healthcare workers or family caregivers; children with persistent respiratory diseases (such as asthma), and anyone who has had pneumonia in the past (because of the increased risk of reinfection). The pneumonococcal vaccine is 90 percent helpful against the bacteria and defends against infection for five to ten years.

* Follow good hygiene.
* Get an influenza shot every fall.
* Apply good preventive measures by eating a proper diet, getting regular exercise and lots of sleep.
* Do not smoke.

INCIDENCE AND STATISTICS
(Data are for U.S.)

Mortality

Number of deaths: 64,954 (2002)

Deaths per 100,000 population: 22.5 (2002)

Percent of hospital inpatient deaths from pneumonia: 8.1 (2000)

Health Care

Number of discharges: 1.3 million (2002)

Average length of stay: 5.7 days (2002)

Home health care

Number of current patients with pneumonia as primary diagnosis: 20,300 (2000)

Percent of current patients with pneumonia as primary diagnosis: 1.5 (2000)

Survey

Nursing home care:

Number of residents with pneumonia: 46,000 (1999)

Percent of residents with pneumonia: 2.5 (1999)
Average length of stay for discharges with pneumonia as primary diagnosis: 124 days (1999